Empire had created a complex system

The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that, between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the southern peninsula was ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the

Pandyas, dynasties that traded extensively with the Roman Empire and with West and South-East Asia.[97][98] In North India, Hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family, leading to increased subordination of women.[99][92] By the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta

Empire had created a complex system of administration and taxation in the greater Ganges Plain; this system became a model for later Indian kingdoms.[100][101] Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion, rather than the management of ritual,

began to assert itself.[102] This renewal was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture, which found patrons among an urban elite.[101] Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well, and Indian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics made significant advances.[101]